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greek-epistemologyfeatured in 40 works

Knowledge vs Opinion

Plato's sharp line between secure, reasoned knowledge and mere opinion that happens to be right but can't say why.

The contrast between episteme (knowledge) and doxa (opinion or belief) lies at the heart of Plato's thought in the 4th century BCE. In the Meno and the Republic he argues that a true opinion, however correct, stays unstable and inferior to knowledge until it is 'tied down' by an account of the reason why — and that real knowledge takes the unchanging Forms, not the shifting world of the senses, as its objects. This distinction set the agenda for epistemology, framing the lasting question of what turns a true belief into knowledge.

How it traveled

  1. Meno
    Athens · -385
    explains
  2. Republic
    Athens · -375
    explains
  3. Theaetetus
    Athens · -369
    explains
  4. Philebus
    Athens · -355
    explains
  5. Memorabilia
    Athens · -354
    explains
  6. Metaphysics
    Chalcis · -322
    explains
  7. Nicomachean Ethics
    Chalcis · -322
    explains
  8. Eudemian Ethics
    Chalcis · -322
    explains
  9. Analytica priora
    Chalcis · -322
    explains
  10. Hermotimus
    Samosata · 180
    explains
  11. Adversus Mathematicos
    Alexandria · 190
    explains
  12. Pyrrhoniae Hypotyposes
    Alexandria · 210
    explains
  13. Vitae philosophorum
    · 240
    explains
  14. HaEmunot veHaDeot
    Sura (Babylonia) · 933
  15. Duties of the Heart
    Zaragoza (Saragossa) · 1080
  16. Kuzari
    Jerusalem · 1120
  17. Guide for the Perplexed
    Cairo · 1190
  18. Yalkut Shimoni on Nach
    Tiberias · 1250
  19. Sefer HaIkkarim
    Soria · 1425
  20. Akeidat Yitzchak
    Tarragona · 1490
  21. Abarbanel on Torah
    Naples · 1505
  22. Avodat HaKodesh (Ibn Gabbai)
    Cairo · 1523
  23. Ketem Paz on Zohar
    Tzfat · 1561
  24. Da'at Tevunot
    Padua · 1735
  25. Tanya
    Liadi · 1797
  26. Likutei Moharan
    Breslov (Ukraine) · 1802
  27. Maor VaShemesh
    Krakow (Cracow) · 1817
  28. Sha'arei HaYichud VeEmunah
    Strashelye · 1820
  29. Likutei Halakhot
    Breslov (Ukraine) · 1840
  30. Sha'ar HaEmunah VeYesod HaChasidut
    Radzin (Radzyń Podlaski) · 1850
  31. Malbim on Job
    Bucharest · 1860
  32. Malbim on Proverbs
    Bucharest · 1860
  33. Malbim on Psalms
    Bucharest · 1860
  34. Malbim on Jeremiah
    Bucharest · 1860
  35. BePardes HaChasidut VeHakabbalah
    Warsaw · 1910
  36. Sulam on Zohar
    Jerusalem · 1945
  37. Stromata
    explains
  38. De Ebrietate
    explains
  39. De Somniis (lib. i-ii)
    explains
  40. Legum Allegoriarum Libri I-III
    explains

Key passages(20)

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Guide for the Perplexed · Moses ben Maimon (Rambam) · 1190 CE

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ההבדל בין היוצר לבין האדם3 ידיעתנו) זהו המצב באשר למכלול המציאות ויחסה אל ידיעתנו וידיעתו יתעלה. כי אנחנו יודעים כל מה שאנחנו יודעים רק בשל ההתבוננות במצויים, ולכן ידיעתנו אינה חלה על מה שעתיד להיות ו

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Epistulae · Basil, Saint, Bishop of Caesarea

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Defense of Palamedes · Gorgias of Leontini

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Alcibiades 2 · Pseudo-Plato

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Alc. A paltry one, I should call it, Socrates. Soc. Yes, you would, I expect, when you saw each one of them vying with the other and assigning the largest part in the conduct of the state to thatWhere

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Soc. I mean that good men must be useful: we were right, were we not, in admitting that this must needs be so? Men. Yes. Soc. And in thinking that they will be useful if they give us right guidance in

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Soc. To possess one of his works which is let loose does not count for much in value; it will not stay with you any more than a runaway slave: but when fastened up it is worth a great deal, for his pr

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Soc. And that there are only two things— true opinion and knowledge—that guide rightly and a man guides rightly if he have these; for things that come about by chance do not occur through human guidan

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That is. How could that which is not be known? We are sufficiently assured of this, then, even if we should examine it from every point of view, that that which entirelyis is entirely knowable, and th

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Excellent, said I, and we are plainly agreed that opinion is a different thing from scientific knowledge. Yes, different. Each of them, then, since it has a different power, is related to a different

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This much premised, let him tell me, I will say, let him answer me, that good fellow who does not think there is a beautiful in itself or any idea of beauty in itself always remaining the same and unc

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Shall we not also say that the one welcomes to his thought and loves the things subject to knowledge and the other those to opinion? Do we not remember that we said that those loved and regarded tones

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“A strange image you speak of,” he said, “and strange prisoners.” “Like to us,” I said; “for, to begin with, tell me do you think that these men would have seen anything of themselves or of one anothe

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“Are you satisfied, then,” said I, “as before, to call the first division science, the second understanding, the third belief, and the fourth conjecture or picture-thought—and the last two collectivel

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Theaetetus · Plato

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SOC. But surely we did not begin our conversation in order to find out what knowledge is not, but what it is. However, we have progressed so far, at least, as not to seek for knowledge in perception a

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Theaetetus · Plato

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SOC. Then this, at any rate, is possible for us, is it not, regarding all things collectively and each thing separately, either to know or not to know them? For learning and forgetting, as intermediat

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Theaetetus · Plato

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SOC. I will not tell you until I have tried to consider the matter in every way. For I should be ashamed of us, if, in our perplexity, we were forced to make such admissions as those to which I refer.

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Theaetetus · Plato

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SOC. See if you follow me better now. If Socrates knows Theodorus and Theaetetus, but sees neither of them and has no other perception of them, he never could have the opinion within himself that Thea

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